The Anarchy in England – A Pointless War with an Unexpected Cause? How Luck, Chance and Fortune messed up our History (Part 3 – The Plantagenet)

Oxford Castle, where Matilda was besieged by King Stphen and
barely managed to escape on an icy winter night in her
white dress which had her camouflaged

In our last blog, we left where Stephen and Robert were finally freed as a result of negotiations between the two opposing sides. The negotiations failed to bring peace, however, and no sooner had it ended than war resumed. Matilda remained a thorn in Stephen’s neck throughout his reign, tirelessly stirring up unrest and finding followers to join her cause. Fortune apparently seemed briefly to have abandoned her, however, during the summer of 1142 with the return of Robert to Normandy to assist Matilda’s husband, Geoffrey, with his war effort. Matilda was left in Oxford Castle, presumably believing herself to be safe. In this she was gravely mistaken. No sooner was Robert gone than Stephen launched a sudden attack and brought his army to surround the castle. His plan was to besiege the castle, trapping his cousin inside and starving her into submission. The food has run out. But Matilda’s will has not. It was the depth of winter, just before Christmas. The ground was icy, the road snowy and the river completely frozen. Determined not to be captured, on a freezing winter night, Matilda snuck out of the castle with a handful of knights, all dressed in white. They crossed the icy river on foot and successfully escaped to Wallingford, thanks to their perfect camouflage.

Wilton Castle, where King Stephen just managed to escape from
the Angevin forces

Matilda remained in England for a few years, tirelessly yet futilely pursuing her claim. She reestablished her court at Devizes Castle, and rebuilt considerable forces of her own. Both sides kept fighting till to the end, and the war soon entered a stalemate. At first, it seemed that luck was favouring Matilda, when the Angevin forces besieged Stephen in 1143 at Wilton Castle, Herefordshire. Stephen managed to escape in the end, however.   She kept fighting on until she finally decided to hand over the torch to her son Henry, who arrived in England in 1147 at the age of 14. Yet, by this time the war effort has become stagnant, with many key players dead or retired, and magnates entering into individual peace agreements. It was obvious that all were keen to cease this pointless fighting that has plagued their country for years.

Something else needs to be explained about the period. Despite the extensive fighting across the realm, the English administrative order remained intact. Stephen’s reign in fact saw abbeys built more than any other period in English history. People went about their business as usual in the midst of civil war. Nonetheless, the battles were entirely ceased in the Penitential seasons of Lent and Advent.

Henry II's Coronation in 1154

Despite Henry’s effort, he was nonetheless defeated at Cricklade by the Thames. In the final years of The Anarchy, it was apparent that Stephen was the clear victor. However, it was equally agreed that Henry should be an inevitable successor of Stephen. A treaty was drawn up at Winchester in 1153. Stephen would reign. But he would also recognize Henry as his successor. Henry gave homage to Stephen, and Stephen exchanged an oath in return. Both sides got what they wanted. Matilda returned to Rouen. With these events unfolded, The Anarchy finally came to a close. King Stephen retired to his grave the following year. Henry then ascended the throne to become Henry II, the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty.

The Anarchy took 16 years. The struggle was futile, solved nothing and proved nothing. Yet, its beauty lies in its purely accidental cause. In a way, it is emblematic of the playful and fickle nature of chance and fortune in interfering with the mortal affairs, similar events of which have littered human history since the Stone Age and will continue to do so in the ages to come.   

The Anarchy in England – A Pointless War with an Unexpected Cause? How Luck, Chance and Fortune messed up our History (Part 2 – Cousin against Cousin)

The death of a King brings with it a temporary state of lawlessness. Only on an accession of a new King could order be restored. Nobles would return to their manors, knights hurry to their castles, and peasants hasten to their cottages, for fear of losing their most prized possessions.

With Matilda’s arrival in 1139, civil war seemed inevitable. In her company was her half illegitimate brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester. In a way, this civil war is also a family quarrel on a large scale over inheritance. The entire country plunged into darkness. Law and order no longer governed the affairs of men. Their fate would instead be governed by what side they took, and the outcome of the war.

Map of Southern England
Blue = area loyal to Empress Matilda
Red = area loyal to King Stephen

Matilda was strong in the west, while Stephen’s stronghold was located in the south-east. Local despots and tyrants ruled the countryside. Their castles became strongholds for bandits and rogue armed men preying on unwary folks. Wars were waged between various groups of magnates under the pretence of loyalty to Stephen or Matilda in an attempt to strengthen their power. Ambushes, raids, skirmishes, and sieges were carried out by all the groups. Towns after towns, and villages after villages were looted, ransacked and pillaged. Populace were taken prisoners. For the next 16 years, there would be an utter collapse of justice and total absence of peace. It was like returning to the Dark Ages where men gave no second thought about slaughtering their own kind. This state of utter disaster and hopelessness stemmed only from a single unexpected yet fateful event; a simple but fatal incautiousness leading to the sinking of the White Ship.

Matilda arrived in Arundel in 1139. Determined to take her rightful inheritance, she set off with a handful of mercenaries led by her half-brother Robert. Her husband was preoccupied with wars of his own in Anjou. Fighting began to erupt sporadically in western countries such as Somerset and Cornwall. Castles were taken, liberated, and recaptured. Other regions which suffered from these sporadic fights included Bristol and Isle of Ely. No decisive victory or defeat has been achieved. It was as though both sides were fighting one another through pure stamina, putting in all their effort until the other would run out of resources, or more importantly, luck!

It was of no surprise that all the great lords of the realm were confronted with a dilemma. Stephen, though he may have snatched the crown from his cousin, enjoyed great popularity and was regarded as the consecrated King. Matilda, on the other hand, did not have the same backup as Stephen had. Nevertheless, despite his maneuverability and backup, Stephen’s luck appeared to have run out when he was captured at Lincoln in February 1141, and subsequently locked up in a dungeon in Bristol. Meanwhile, Matilda began all the necessary preparations to have herself crowned as Queen in Stephen’s place. Stephen’s brother Henry, who has now switched side (such treachery is common throughout history as mortals are continuously swayed by chance and fortune), summoned a council at Winchester before Easter in his capacity as Bishop of Winchester to consider the clergy’s view in return for Matilda granting him control over church business in the Kingdom. He then proceeded to excommunicate many supporters of Stephen. For a moment, fortune seemed to have abandoned Stephen. He, noticing the plight of his supporters if they were to break their oaths to him and support Matilda, generously indicated his willingness to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him.  A kind-hearted yet luckless King he indeed was!

Wolvesey Castle, a scene for the Rout of Winchester where the Angevin
forces were defeated

Matilda was finally hailed in Winchester as “Lady of England”. She was, however, never crowned, and her status remained dubious. Confusion was generated all over the realm. Indeed, the King was held to be appointed by God and thus possessed divine power. The sacral role of the King meant that it was an act of sacrilege to imprison a King in his own country. Fear of divine retribution spread across cities after cities. Matilda’s position appeared more and more precarious as she advanced to London to stage her coronation in June. Forces loyal to Stephen remained close to the capital and citizens were unwilling to stage a welcome to the Empress and their would-be Queen. Nor did it help her cause that she was becoming ever more imperious in her triumph. Being used to the kind of treatment and absolute divine power she enjoyed when she was the Holy Roman Empress, she was expecting the same treatment here in England. She began to demand for money and tribute, and effectively alienated the Londoners. A few days later, the city could bear her presence for no longer and rose up against her. Amidst the sound of the church bells, a mob descended on a banquet at Westminster where Matilda was about to dine. Fearing for her safety, she immediately took flight and retreated to the city of Oxford. Stephen’s cause was not entirely lost after all. After a long struggle, it appeared that luck had pitiably slipped through Matilda’s fingers as a result of her own folly (who’s to blame?).     

Queen Matilda of Boulogne, wife of
King Stephen; she must be distinguished from
her namesake,  Empress Matilda,
Stephen's adversary and cousin

Stephen’s wife, Queen Matilda (an unfortunate name that is apt to create much confusion) played a major role in maintaining the King’s cause in Stephen’s absence. She has generated sympathy and support from Stephen’s loyal followers. Even Stephen’s brother Henry transferred his allegiance to her after a falling out with the Empress Matilda. It was indeed due to her tireless effort to keep her husband’s cause alive that the tides of fortune were finally favouring Stephen. The two sides finally met at the Rout of Winchester. Empress Matilda’s forces were encircled by the army of Queen Matilda and subsequently defeated. Robert of Gloucester was taken prisoner, while Empress Matilda once again made a narrow escape to her fortress at Devizes in the guise of a corpse wrapped in linen corecloth and tied by ropes to a bier!  With both Stephen and Robert taken prisoner, it made sense that both should now be freed in exchange for the other. The exchange occurred in November. Bishop Henry held another church council to reverse the previous decision and reaffirmed Stephen’s legitimacy to rule. Such is the transience and fickleness of men’s loyalty.  Stephen and his wife Matilda were once again crowned at Christmas 1141, after which he immediately set out to destroy some of the Angevic castles built recently including Cirencester, Bampton and Wareham.

Next blog, we will see what happened to Empress Matilda when she was besieged at Oxford Castle. Will she get away? Or will Stephen rid himself of his adversary once and for all? Will Henry I's descendants be able to reclaim the throne? Keep an eye out for our next blog.

To be continued in the next blog

The Anarchy in England – A Pointless War with an Unexpected Cause? How Luck, Chance and Fortune messed up our History (Part 1 – Background and Beginning of the War)

Henry I
A sly and clever King, Henry I may have played a
part in his brother's death so that he could take the
throne of England for himself

The story I’m about to tell occurs at the end of Henry I’s reign up till 1154. Many may wonder why I choose this period to write about while ignoring the much more famous and significant 1066 Norman Conquest . Do not fear! I shall write about that soon if time permits (and if you are willing to read it, of course, as opposed to looking up a wealth of information on it out there already). The reason is that this war-ridden period in British history has always fascinated me, caused so unexpectedly as it was by a series of luck and coincidence.

Henry I is the fourth and youngest son of the famous William the Conqueror who established the Norman Dynasty (more about that later!). His older brothers are Robert, Richard and William. Upon their father’s death, Robert was granted the Duchy of Normandy, Richard was already dead at that time (killed in the hunting accident in the New Forest), and William received England and became William II. Henry was, however, left landless, with only a handful of money. Some surmise that Henry got the throne of England by plotting William II’s murder in the New Forest while both of them were out hunting. William II was indeed killed (by a stray arrow shot by Henry’s friend), but whether his death was planned remains uncertain to this day. Indeed, the circumstances of his death are strikingly similar to that of Richard a few decades earlier, making us wonder at this bizarre twist of fate.

William Adelin, son and heir of Henry I

Now you all remember that Henry still has one remaining brother, Robert, Duke of Normandy. Discontent with being a mere Duke and regarding Henry’s claim to the throne of England as unwarranted (Robert is the older and oldest brother after all!!), decided to invade England in 1101. He failed. Both side reached a settlement and Robert returned to Normandy. Henry then invaded Normandy in 1105 and 1106, defeated Robert at the Battle Tinchebray and imprisoned him for the rest of his life. Happy Henry now has both England and Normandy. But still this is not the focus of this blog!

Fast forward to 1116, a major rebellion broke out in Normandy supported by Louis VI of France. Henry and his son William Adelin defeated the French at the battle of Bremule, after which both sides reached a peace settlement whereby William Adelin would be officially invested with the Duchy in 1119.

Matilda, a fiery arrogant daughter of Henry I

It is at this point that I must now digress and talk a little bit about Henry’s two legitimate children. Under the law of royal succession, only legitimate children could ascend the throne of England. Now Henry I had many illegitimate sons and daughters (he took many mistresses!), but no sons could be more important than William Adelin, whose mother is Henry’s Queen, Matilda. His other legitimate child is a daughter named Matilda, whom Henry married to Henry V the Holy Roman Emperor (remember her as she will definitely become a major and significant character later in the story).  Thus Henry I only had one legitimate son, on whom all his hope of establishing a secure line of succession rested. But as you all could have guessed, history always has a nasty surprise and ways of spicing thing up….

Henry I has been so far lucky. He has the throne of England. He successfully quelled the rebellion in Normandy. He defeated the French (always a British pride). His son was now invested with the Duchy of Normandy. If there is only one thing left to achieve before he could rest in peace that would be to see his son ready and well established to be the next English King. However, Henry I will never live to see that day….

Henry is said never to smile again after
the death of his son William Adelin
 after the White Ship disaster

On the evening of 25 November 1120, Henry’s only legitimate son and heir, the 16-year-old William Adelin and his party went aboard the White Ship from Barfleur in Normandy bound for England. The atmosphere was festive. The passengers were drunk. The crew were also drunk. The helmsman was inattentive. As a result, the ship went straight onto a large rock hidden just below the waterline (who could have guessed). The fateful impact sank the ship, bringing down with it the English heir apparent and several other members of the nobility into the deep blue sea (by the way, the coast of England is just in sight!). The only survivor is a butcher from Rouen. Another survivor is Henry I’s nephew, Stephen, Count of Blois, who were suffering from a severe diarrhea and declined to board the White Ship in the last minute (remember him, he is also extremely important!). You see, fate always has a way of complicating things, and it is fate which will ultimately dictate the worldly affairs and the course of history.

The White Ship

The White Ship disaster, itself a mere incident of shipwreck, immediately brought about a succession crisis. Henry’s only remaining legitimate child is Matilda, a daughter. He fathered no other legitimate children in his later years despite having taken a second wife, Queen Adeliza. Matilda, as mentioned earlier, was married to Henry V the Holy Roman Emperor and became Empress. When Henry V died in 1125, she was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey Count of Anjou. With his heir now dead, in 1127 Henry gathered the barons of the land in Westminster Hall and ordered them to swear fealty that they would uphold Matilda’s succession, a radical step indeed as no woman has ever been crowned as King before in English history.  Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew (Stephen is a son of Henry’s sister, Adela), was among those who swore fealty to Matilda. Again, as we will see, Henry could not have foreseen nor controlled all the future complications which were about to arise. Clever men may plot and plan. The powerful may calculate and strategise. But luck and chance will always rule the human affairs in the end.

Stephen of Blois, Henry I's nephew and Matilda's cousin

After Henry’s death, arguably an unthinkable happened. On learning of the King’s death, Stephen of Blois left France, rode straight to London, acclaimed King by the people, and claimed the treasury (yes, the same Stephen who had diarrhea just before he was about to board the White Ship, and yes, the same Stephen who swore an oath to Matilda in 1127). He believed in his luck. After all, he is a grandson of William the Conqueror, and naturally a potential candidate for the English throne in the absence of any royal heirs. He persuaded many leaders of the Kingdom to join his cause and was crowned King in Westminster Abbey on 22 December 1135, three weeks after Henry’s death. The reason for his success indeed stemmed from the unwillingness of the nobility to be governed by a woman. No woman has ever ruled England as a Monarch before and Matilda was known to be arrogant and of imperious temperament given she was Empress since 14 and enjoyed absolute royal power since. What was Matilda then to do? Her throne was snatched from her by a disloyal cousin. Filled with fiery temperament she inherited from her Norman forebears, she arrived in England in 1139 with her supporters and troops, and with her arrival, the beginning of a long struggle between cousins as they fought for the English throne. The Anarchy has begun.

To be continued in the next blog

Important Figures of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty - a Comprehensive List

Julio-Claudian Emperors

(1) Augustus

• Clodia Pulchra (Daughter of Mark Antony’s third wife, Fulvia, from her first marriage to Publius Clodius Pulcher)
• Scribonia
• Julia the Elder
• Livia Drusilla (Mother of the Emperor Tiberius)

(2) Tiberius

• Vipsania Agrippina (Daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and his first wife, Caecilia Pomponia Attica)
• Drusus Julius Caesar
• Julia the Elder (Daughter of Augustus)

(3) Caligula

• Junia Claudilla
• Livia Orestilla
• Lollia Polina
• Milonia Caesonia
• Livia Drusilla

(4) Claudius

• Plautia Urgulanilla
• Claudius Drusus
• Aelia Paetina
• Claudia Antonia
• Valeria Messalina
• Claudia Octavia (First wife of the Emperor Nero)
• Britannicus
• Agrippina the Younger (Mother of the Emperor Nero)

(5) Nero

• Claudia Octavia
• Poppaea Sabina
• Claudia Augusta
• Statilia Messalina

Julio-Claudian Relatives

(1) Gaius Julius Caesar: Father of the dictator Julius Caesar; he married

• Aurelia Cotta
• Julius Caesar (The dictator)
• Julia Major
• Julia Minor (Grandmother of Augustus and Octavia Minor)

(2) Julia Minor: Daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar and Aurelia Cotta, sister of Julius Caesar and grandmother of Augustus; she married

• Marcus Atius Balbus
• Atia Balba Prima
• Atia Balba Caesonia (Wife of Gaius Octavius and mother of Augustus and Octavia Minor)
• Atia Balba Tertia

(3) Julius Caesar: dictator of Rome from 49-44 BC; he married

• Cornelia Cinna Minor, then
• Julia Caesaris (Fourth wife of Pompey the Great)
• Pompeia (Maternal granddaughter of Lucius Cornelius Sulla the dictator), then
• Culpurnia Pisonis, then
• Cleopatra VII
• Caesarion

(4) Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great):  Julius Caesar’s rival and son-in-law; he married

• Antistia, then
• Aemilia Scaura, then
• Mucia Tertia, then 
• Gnaeus Pompeius
• Pompeia Magna (Daughter-in-law of Lucius Cornelius Sulla the dictator)
• Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius
• Julia Caesaris (Daughter of Julius Caesar and Cornelia Cinna), then
• Cornelia Metella 

(5) Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony): Caesar’s general, and Augustus’s rival and brother-in-law; he married

• Fadia, then
• They had several children but nothing is known about them
• Antonia Hybrida Minor, then
• Antonia[1]  
• Fulvia (Mother of Augustus’s first wife, Clodia Pulchra, the daughter from her first marriage to Publius Clodius Pulcher), then
• Marcus Antonius Antyllus
• Illus Antonius (Second husband of Claudia Marcella Major after she divorced Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa)
• Octavia Minor (Sister of Augustus), then
• Antonia Major
• Antonia Minor (Mother of the Emperor Claudius)
• Cleopatra VII
• Alexander Helios
• Cleopatra Selene II
• Ptolemy Philadelphus

(6) Octavia Minor: Daughter of Gaius Octavius and Atia Balba Caesonia and sister of Augustus; she married

• Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, then
• Marcus Claudius Marcellus (First husband of Julia the Elder)
• Claudia Marcella Major
• Claudia Marcella Minor
• Mark Antony
• Antonia Major
• Antonia Minor

(7) Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa: Augustus’ friend, finest general and son-in-law; he married

• Caecilia Pomponia Attica, then
• Vipsania Agrippina (First wife of the Emperor Tiberius)
• Claudia Marcella Major (Daughter of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor and Octavia Minor), then
• Vipsania Marcella Agrippina?[2]
• Julia the Elder (Daughter of Augustus and Scribonia)
• Gaius Caesar
• Julia the Younger
• Lucius Caesar
• Agrippina the Elder (Wife of Germanicus and mother of the Emperor Caligula)
• Agrippa Postumus

(8) Vipsania Agrippina: Daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Caecilia Pomponia Attica; she married

• Emperor Tiberius (Step-son and successor of Augustus), then
• Drusus Julius Caesar (Husband of Livilla, his cousin and daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor)
• Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus
• Gaius Asinius Pollio
• Marcus Asinius Agrippa
• (Gnaeus?) Asinius Saloninus
• Servius Asinius Celer
• (Lucius?) Asinius Gallus
• Gnaeus Asinius?[3]

(9) Vipsania Marcella Agrippina: Daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Claudia Marcella Major?; she married

• Publius Quinctilius Varus (the ill-fated Governor of Germany)

• Marcus Aemilius Lepidus?[4] (Brother of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, husband of Julia the Younger)
• It is unknown whether they had any children[5]

(10) Claudia Marcella Major[6]: Daughter of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor and Octavia Minor; she married

• Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, then
• Vipsania Marcella Agrippina?
• Illus Antonius (Son of Mark Antony and Fulvia)
• Lucius Antonius

• Gaius Antonius[7]
• Illa Antonia?[8]
• Sextus Appuleius II?[9] (Son of Sextus Appuleius I and Octavia Major, half-sister of Augustus and Octavia Minor)
• Appuleia Varilla?[10]

(11) Claudia Marcella Minor: Daughter of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor and Octavia Minor; she married

• Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus?[11] (by adoption), then
• Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus? (Father of the Empress Messalina)
• Claudia Pulchra?[12]
• Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus[13] (Father of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, husband of Julia the Younger, from his first marriage to Cornelia Lentula)
• It is unknown whether they had any children[14]

(12) Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus: Father of the Empress Messalina and son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus and Claudia Marcella Minor?; he married

• Domitia Lepida the Younger
• Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus?[15]
• Valeria Messalina (Third wife of the Emperor Cluadius)

(13) Claudia Pulchra: Daughter of Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus and Claudia Marcella Minor?; she married

•  Publius Quinctilius Varus (Widower of Vipsania Marcella Agrippina, and the ill-fated Governor of Germany)
• Publius Quinctilius Varus Minor

(14) Antonia Major: Daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor; she married

• Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
• Domitia Lepida the Elder
• Domitia Lepida the Younger (Mother of the Empress Messalina)
• Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (First husband of the Empress Agrippina and father of the Emperor Nero)

(15) Domitia Lepida the Younger: Mother of the Empress Messalina and daughter of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major; she married

• Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus, then
• Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus?
• Valeria Messalina
• Faustus Cornelius Sulla (Great-grandson of Lucius Cornelius Sulla the dictator), then
• Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (Second husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the Emperor Claudius and Aelia Paetina)
• Gaius Appius Junius Silanus

(16) Julia the Younger: Daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, and granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia; she married

• Lucius Aemilius Paullus
• Aemilia Lepida[16] (Fiancée of the Emperor Claudius and wife of  Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus)
• Marcus Aemilius Paullus?[17] (Second husband of Julia Drusilla, sister of the Emperor Caligula)

(17) Aemilia Lepida: Daughter of Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Julia the Younger, and fiancée of the Emperor Claudius; she married

• Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus
• Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus
• Junia Calvina
• Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus
• Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus
• Junia Lepida

---

[1] Since she is the oldest of the Antonias, this Antonia should be Antonia Major.  The mistake here is probably because historians were unaware of her existence.  This means that the daughters of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor should be called Antonia Minor and Antonia Tertia respectively.

[2] Some sources suggest that it is more likely that she is the oldest daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa by his first wife, Caecilia Pomponia Attica.  However, this seems improbable considering that this daughter was named Vipsania Marcella Agrippina. 

[3] The existence of this son is recorded by the townsfolk of Puteoli, whose patron he was. Nothing else is known about him. He may have been identical with Asinius Saloninus or the foregoing Asinius Gallus. Since the Asinius Gallus seems to have been the Lucius Asinius Gallus who became a Consul in 60, by exclusion of parts the Gnaeus Asinius must be the Asinius Saloninus.

[4] It is uncertain whether this marriage actually existed.  If it is, then a son of hers is recovered from a dedication inscription in the basilica Aemilia.

[5] This will depend on whether Vipsania Marcella Agrippina’s marriage to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus actually existed.

[6] Historians often confuse the identity of the two Marcellae sisters.  For example, Tacitus mentioned that Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus was Claudia Marcella Major’s husband and not her sister’s.  It is difficult to know the exact truth since much of the lives of the Marcellae sisters is unknown.

[7] The name of this son is uncertain.

[8] The existence of this daughter is postulated, but uncertain.

[9] Some sources suggest that he in fact married Quinctilia, sister of the ill-fated governor of Germany Publius Quinctilius Varus, and not Claudia Marcella Major.  The marriage is said to have produced two children; Sextus Appuleius and Appuleia Varilla.

[10] Some sources state that her mother was in fact Quinctilia, and that she also had a brother, Sextus Appuleius.

[11] Some sources suggest that he might instead be Claudia Marcella Major’s husband, though this is improbable.

[12] It is unclear how many children Claudia Marcella Minor had in her first marriage.  Some sources say she had only one son child by Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus.

[13] His father who possesses the same name is the brother of the triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.

[14] Some sources suggest that they have a son named Paullus Aemilius Regillus.

[15] Some sources state that the sole child of Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus is Valeria Messalina and does not mention Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus.

[16] Some historians confuse her with her cousin, another Aemilia Lepida, who is the daughter of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, brother of Lucius Aemilius Paullus.  This Aemilia Lepida is the wife of Drusus Caesar (brother of the Emperor Caligula).

[17] Some sources suggest that he is the son of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, brother of Lucius Aemilius Paullus.  If this is the case then he would instead be the nephew of Lucius Aemilius Paullus (not his son) and the brother of another Aemilia Lepida, who is the wife of Drusus Caesar (brother of the Emperor Caligula).

Richard II and the Peasants' Revolt of 1381

Richard II, King of England from 1377 - 1399, is certainly one of the most interesting characters in English history. Described by some as beautiful, intelligent, well read and rather feminine, yet to Shakespeare, he is cruel, vindictive and irresponsible. Bishop Stubbs in The Constitutional History of England argued that towards the end of his reign, Richard's mind "was losing its balance altogether". On the other hand, such diagnosis was dismissed by later historians, who claimed that his change in personality is purely a result of his narcissistic indulgence. In this regard, he is not dissimilar to his arrogant, greedy, fiery and bad-tempered Plantagenet forebears. Whether the shift in his personality can be attributed to his mental state caused by external factors such as the death of his first Queen, Anne of Bohemia, in 1394, or to his innate psychological issues and intrinsic violent tendency shared by almost all other Plantagenets is unknown. Nevertheless, one thing we know for certain is that it is this shift in personality that gradually served to make him fall out of favour with the people, and that ultimately brought about his downfall.

Formerly known as Richard of Bordeaux, Richard II was crowned at the age of ten. The second son of Edward the Black Prince and a grandson of the famous Edward III, who sparked the Hundred Years' War with France, Richard II became first in line to the Throne of England after the death of his father and elder brother. His father is the eldest son of Edward III, and is an illustrious fighter who exhibited his military prowess during his campaign in France. There is no doubt why the Black Prince's premature death brought so much grief to Edward III and to the English people.

On the day of Richard's coronation, a minority council was formed to help rule on Richard's behalf on account of his young age. It was thought at the time that John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster who is  Edward III's third surviving son and the young King's eldest surviving uncle, would have been preferred. On the contrary, John of Gaunt merely ensured some of his supporters were part of the council and thereafter withdrew to Kenilworth Castle.

Richard II inherited an uneasy crown, together with all the dissatisfaction that is the hallmark of his period. the Shortage of labour, pestilence, cruel and uncompromising landlords, onerous taxation exacted to fund the ongoing campaigns in France (the Hundred Years' War lasted up till the reign of Henry VI!) provide a perfect hotbed for civil unrest. Richard's first test came four years after his coronation at the end of 1380, that would later culminate in the greatest rebellion in English history. The unrest began in York, when a rumour started to spread that a group of armed rebels broke into the city guildhall and drove out the mayor. Exasperated by the onerous tax burden imposed by the Court, they were demanding justice. 

Something needs to be mentioned about the nature of taxation at the time to give a better context of the 1381 rebellion. In response to the uprising in York, the Northampton parliament nonetheless decreed a poll tax which was three times more onerous than the last. This poll tax means a tax on every 'poll or head' imposed equally on the rich and poor. Its perversity is further enhanced by the proviso that rich people could use to avoid the tax burden, and as a result the poor suddenly shouldered the greater burden. The unrest quickly spread, first in Kent, where the rioters occupied Canterbury and freed all the prisoners held in the Archbishop's prison, among them a certain radical cleric known as John Ball, who inspired the rebels with his sermons.

Things seemed to get out of control for the young King when, on 11 June 1381, the rebels decided to march upon London to vent out their grievances. Uprisings were now sparked all over England with riots erupting in Norwich, St Albans, Winchester, York, Scarborough and Ipswich. Approximately 30,000 men were now on the road. Out of all of them, the men of Kent were the most fierce.  The Kentish rebels were led by Wat Tyler (or Wat the Tiler - people not infrequently took their last names from their profession). They gathered on Blackheath on 12 June. At that time, Richard, aged 14, had retreated to the Tower of London for safety. His situation was very precarious since almost all the royal  forces were either abroad or in northern England. On 13 June, the rebels finally entered London, and attacked the jails, destroyed the Savoy Palace, set fire to the law books and buildings, and slaughtered anyone associated with the royal government. It is noteworthy that the people of London sympathised with the rebel's cause and left the city gate open for their coming. They too were incensed by the harsh taxation and joined the rebels in the pillaging of the city. All this time, Richard was observing the carnage from a window of the Tower.

On 14 June when Richard decided to make his journey to Mile End on his horse to address the rebels in the company of the mayor of London, William Walworth, and some knights. After kneeling to their anointed King, the rebels began to dictate the terms of negotiation. They wanted the 'traitors', officials who unjustly taxed and oppressed them. They wanted to cleanse the government of these mongrels. They wanted all the serfs to be given their freedom, and that land should be rented at fourpence per acre. The King, in his attempt to bring about appeasement, agreed, replying that he would surrender to the rebels any men convicted of treachery according to the law. Meanwhile, in the King's absence, certain rebels had already decided to take the law into their own hands by entering the Tower, dragging out several officials taking refuge there including the Archbishop of Canterbury, and beheading them on the site of public execution. All over England, manors were being pillaged and its inhabitants killed. Law and order came to a halt, and tax records burnt. The rebels despised John of Gaunt, whom they perceived to be the leader of their oppressors.

The most famous episode of the Peasants' Revolt is on 15 June, when Richard came to parley with the rebels at Smithfield. Wat Tyler and approximately 20,000 insurgents were waiting for the King. Upon encounter, Richard and Wat rode up to one another and began their conversation. The content of the conversation was not all that clear but it is certain that Wat appeared to be threatening Richard, playing with his dagger and laying his hand on the bridle of the King's horse. Fearing treason, the mayor of London stabbed a short sword into Wat's throat. Wat was later taken to the hospital of St Bartholomew. At this point, angered and shocked at the event, the rebels drew their bows. The situation would have escalated into a fighting had Richard not galloped to the front line of archers, exclaiming:

"What are you doing? Tyler was a traitor. Come with me, and I will be your leader".

He then led the rebels north into Islington, where 1,000 armed men had been gathered by the mayor. The rebels was walking to a trap, and upon learning this, fell to their knees and begged for pardon. The King wisely rejected any idea of punishment, and ordered the rebels to return to their homes. Wat Tyler was then taken out of the hospital and beheaded in Smithfield. So thus disastrously ended the first phase of the revolt for the rebels. 

One of the first few glimpses into Richard's turbulent character is provided a few days later when he revoked the charter of emancipation he had granted at Mile End, on the ground that it had been extorted by violence. When he reached Essex to examine the revolt's aftermath, a group of villagers asked him to keep his promise. His response was, however, very crude, according to one contemporary chronicler:

"You wretches are detestable both on land and on sea. You seek equality with the lords, but you are unworthy to live. Give this message to your fellows: rustics you are, and rustics you will always be. You will remain in bondage, not as before, but incomparably harsher. For as long as we love we will strive to suppress you, and your misery will be an example to posterity."

Punishment was then issued, most harshly to the county of Essex. The leaders of the rebels were beheaded. John Ball was hanged, drawn and quartered in St Albans. Both he and Wat Tyler were later remembered as heroes in folk memory. 

The revolt was essentially misnamed the Peasants' Revolt since it is generally known that the participants were mostly the leaders of village life, such as bailiffs, constables and jurors. Far from being opportunistic, they had actual grievances and wanted to voice those grievances to the only person who had the power to do something about it. Indeed, there is actual evidence of widespread corruption by local magnates. All the ordinances and statutes concerning labour had changed significantly after the Black Death. The law was no longer an instrument of justice, but instead a vehicle to further the exaction, extortion and oppression of the lower classes. As the people began to realise the futility of the war with France, they were protesting even more against their obligation to fund such futile war. They furthermore despised the greedy landlords and officials who cared only about their pockets and nothing about the miserable lives of the common people. 

In the end, what brought about the rebels' demise is their misjudgment of Richard's character. The King, whom they believed to embody the idea of virtue, justice and compromise, actually turned out to be a mere uncompromising and fiery Plantagenet, whose only concerns were self-preservation, self-glorification and self-enrichment. In this way, Richard is no difference to the selfish and greedy officials the people were attempting to denounce and stamp out. Indeed, it is this treacherous personality of Richard, coupled with his uncompromising and turbulent character, that will ultimately bring about his downfall. He was lucky to have survived in 1381, but he won't be lucky forever.

Please stick with us if you want to read more about the story of Richard II and all the struggles he faced throughout his reign......

To be continued

I'm a History Lover

Hi, my name is Tucky. Recently, I've been on a quest in an attempt to find my passion, and then I stumbled on the topic of history! Yes, what else could it be? I've been reading (or rather being read to) about history since I was 5 or 6. Well, the main reason is that history books are often filled with captivating and colourful pictures. And kids love pictures, and so that's how my passion for history began (from a few pages of colourful artifacts, who could have guessed?). At that time, I couldn't read a word of English, and my dad had to do all the reading for me (translating on the spot into my native tongue - a task he admitted was painstakingly tormenting lol). Therefore, he decided that I should be the one doing all the reading for myself, and thus began my overseas education program that would last for 12 years (I spent a good chunk of my life in Sydney, Australia, for 12 years). I acquired a high level of proficiency in English, and here I am now doing all the reading for myself.

As I got older, I found that pictureless books weren't that unattractive. I picked up Latin in my high school, and Roman history became my forte (imagine all the Latin sources I was exposed to, including the Annals of Imperial Rome by Tacitus). I started reading extensively on Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, Marcus Crassus, Cicero, Mark Antony, Octavian and other prominent figures. I also read several historical fictions on this period (among other periods). Naturally, most of blogs will be dedicated to recounting the tale of the Roman Republic in its decline, the first and second Triumvirates, the assassination of Julius Caesar, the fateful battle of Actium and the prosperous Augustan Age.

Another alluring period of history which I found equally captivating is Middle Age England. I am fortunate to have visited this beautiful country, filled with all the stuff that a history maniac would love such as castles, monolithic structures, grave sites, ancient abbeys and monasteries and thousands more (and of course, the Loch Ness Monster in Scotland!). Just as I did with ancient Rome, I began reading extensively on this period of history, mainly from the point of the Norman Invasion in 1066 onward. My main interests however are the beginning of the Hundred Year War with France which broke out during the reign of Edward III of the Plantagenet Dynasty up till the end of the War of the Roses, with the rise of the House of York and accession of Edward IV as the King of England.

Of course, I won't be only concentrating on these two periods mentioned above. I'll be most definitely spice things up by throwing a few more up in my blogs (hopefully!). This includes ancient Egypt and Greece and few dozen more (mostly in the area around the Mediterranean). Nor is history my only passion. Mythology and languages are also fortes, and I'll be most happy to include these as well from time to time when I feel like it. Who could refuse all those fanciful tales about the mighty Thor and his hammer, the naughty Loki, the almighty Zeus, the tempestuous Poseidon, the merciful Isis, and the sly Seth. Nor can we ignore those powerful heroes that have inspired our imagination for many centuries. Anyway, that should be enough to give you a heads up of what you are about to face in my blog, and thanks for taking the time to read this.