The Bona Dea Scandal of 62 BC and its Ramification (Part 2 – Battle of the Two Nemeses)

The Death of Clodius

Last time, we left off where Caesar has craftily gained the loyalty of Clodius through his feigned ignorance of the Bona Dea scandal, and Cicero’s plight at the prospect of making a formidable foe out of Clodius through his tireless prosecution of the latter.  Nor was it helpful to Cicero that he now antagonised Caesar in another separate trial of Gaius Antonius.

Antonius, at the intimation and support of Cicero, was given the governorship of Macedonia. During his governorship, he inflicted many injuries on the territory and extorted the inhabitants. For this, he was eventually charged with extortion and incompetence to govern his province. Cicero, despite his best defence of Antonius, was despondent when Antonius was convicted in March 59 BC for his participation in the Cataline conspiracy (more about that later). In his outrage, Cicero unwisely attacked Caesar, accusing him of influencing the trial outcome. Caesar was enraged. He now sought to put Cicero in his place, and what better way to do it than enlisting the help of his lackey, Clodius, Cicero’s bitter enemy?

Clodius, ousted from the Senate by the prosecution Cicero brought against him, was still nursing an undying hatred for the orator. He wanted to become a Tribune, a very powerful post, so that he could take revenge directly on Cicero. However, there is one obstacle – the law forbade a patrician like Clodius from being elected a Tribune. Caesar, seeing the opportunity, enlisted the help of his supporter, the Tribune Herennius, convincing him to adopt Clodius into his family thereby making him a ‘pleb’ – a process known as “transition ad plebem”. Despite Cicero’s tireless objection and savage criticism, the Senate allowed the adoption after several months of deliberations. Having discarded his patrician status, Clodius was free to become a Tribune and unleash his anger on his nemesis. To add insult to the injury, Herennius was much younger than Clodius, and Cicero bitterly commented that “the man who has adopted [Clodius] as your father might…have been your son”. No matter how much the lamentation and grievance Cicero might have felt, an undeniable fact is that Clodius was now unstoppable.

To add to Cicero’s nightmare, Clodius was elected Tribune of the Plebs in October 58 BC. This powerful post would give Clodius power to propose laws and manage the closing of Senate sessions. Most importantly, Clodius was not vested with the power to ‘veto’ the motions of other senators or other Tribunes! Here was the tool both Caesar and Clodius would exploit against Cicero. After all, the Duo desired the same thing: to see Cicero humiliated and discredited. That a stubborn, wanton and spiteful man like Clodius was willing to place himself at Caesar’s service demonstrated how much grievance and animosity he had against Cicero. Indeed, as expounded by Dio, one of Cicero’s greatest shortcomings was that he often “made for himself bitter enemies by always striving to get the better of even the most powerful men and by employing an unbridled and excessive frankness of speech toward all alike”. Nothing could be truer!

With his departure to Gaul approaching, Clodius became ever more crucial to Caesar’s plan. With his lackey left in the Senate to ensure his affairs and interests were properly safeguarded, Caesar would be free to launch a conquest of his life and attain a name and glory for himself. He also offered Cicero a post under his command, an offer Cicero refused (obviously!). Nonetheless, Caesar continued to keep Cicero under his watchful eyes while dealing with him only at arm’s length. Meanwhile, Clodius has proven himself ever more loyal and effective by enacting a series of laws designed to promote the positive public image of Caesar in Rome. Cicero’s attempt to challenge the law came to naught (yet again). Even more so, in a twist of fate, Clodius led the Senate in the persecution of Cicero and succeeded in exiling the orator from Rome. Cicero suddenly found himself losing everything he held dear – his fame, glory, livelihood and possession. His villa was burnt down by angry mobs. His family was scattered. Clodius the Pleb had finally got his sweet revenge!

Other leaders of the Senate soon found themselves in chaos caused by Clodius’ mischief. Indeed, Caesar’s plan was to prevent the Optimates (Caesar’s opposition in the Senate) from coming together in his absence. In his long absence in Gaul, he never realised what kind of monster he had unleashed upon Rome. Tired of being a tool of Caesar, Clodius set out to cause havoc on the streets of Rome, ordering the confiscation and burning of several villas on the consecrated ground of high-ranking senators. Even Pompey found himself under attack by Clodius’ mob that on one occasion he was forced to barricade himself inside his house! The incident was so serious that Julia, Pompey’s wife and Caesar’s daughter, suffered a shock and miscarried as a result.

The Appian Way where Clodius was murdered

With Cicero’s return to Rome in 57 BC under Pompey’s protection, the two of them joined forces against Clodius. In this, they were joined by a new ally, Milo, another enemy of Clodius and a street ruffian just like Clodius. The two ruffians engaged in daily fighting and Rome was plunged into anarchy. Gang-warfare plagued the streets of Rome, as good men and women feared even to come out in the daylight. The sight of blood was common as Rome became a big “blood bath”. The climax came in 52 BC when Milo and Clodius’ mobs engaged in yet another gang-war, where Clodius was murdered. In response, Clodius’ followers burnt his body in the Senate House, which was subsequently burnt down. This extreme violence caused the Senate to elect Pompey as sole Consul and declare “martial law”.

At this perilous juncture, the fate of the Republic is sealed. With Caesar having completed his conquest of Gaul, it was too late for the Senators in Rome to work together to stop him, long divided as they were by Clodius. This combined with Caesar’s popularity among the people made the situation worse. In 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon to declare himself master of Rome.

In the end, the end of the Republic can be attributed to one simple incident - The Bona Dea Scandal of 62 BC. That a man could rise to power from his act of sacrilege was indeed paradoxical. Nonetheless, Clodius’ rise to power plunged the affairs of the Republic into chaos, and allowed Caesar to roam free in Gaul and strengthened his power base. Without Clodius’ aid, Caesar’s adversaries might have proven a sufficient check on Caesar’s power and might have prevented that fateful crossing of the Rubicon.

The Bona Dea Scandal of 62 BC and its Ramification (Part 1)

Women celebrating the Bona Dea Rituals

The Roman World is full of religious rites and rituals. As an undying remnant from long ages past since the time of Romulus, the fear and respect for the Divine permeated through the society, and through all layers of public life, from a single observation of the natural world (such as lightning and eagles flying overhead), to the inspection of animal entrails by augurs deciphering the fate of the Republic. In this, Rome is pretty much like a venerable and august ‘junk yard’ who tirelessly recycled her ancient customs since time immemorial.

The rituals of the Bona Dea are no exception, with its root deep within antiquity. Literally meaning ‘the Good Goddess’, Bona Dea is a divinity in ancient Roman religion associated with chastity and fertility in women. According to some sources, the Goddess’ origin is Magna Graecia (the coastal areas of Southern Italy on the Tarentine Gulf). The Goddess had two annual festivals, one held at her Aventine temple; the other hosted in December by the wife of Rome's senior annual magistrate, for a group of elite matrons and female attendants including the Vestal Virgins. The sacred rituals were strictly confined to women. Men were barred from her mysteries and the possession of her true name. There were numerous ancient speculations about identity of the Bona Dea since male authors undoubtedly would have limited knowledge on the subject. Before the rituals, the house was to be ritually cleansed of all male persons and presences, even male animals and male portraiture. Males who were caught attending or sneaking a peek at the rituals would be severely punished, including being brutally wounded.

Bona Dea enthroned with Cornucopia

In 62 BC, it happened that the services of the Bona Dea rituals would be performed at the home of the then Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest), Gaius Julius Caesar (our famous Dictator). However, the ceremony was unceremoniously ‘tainted’ when Publius Claudius Pulcher (Cicero’s bitter enemy, as mentioned in our last blog), a young patrician of the Clodii family, was found trying to enter Caesar’s home on the night of the services dressed up as a musician girl. He was discovered by a slave. Cicero, as always, related such tale to his friend Atticus. In a way, Clodius was lucky to have escaped with his life since such sacrilege would have warranted his killing at the hands of the ritual participants. Nonetheless, the ceremony was desecrated, and its repercussion far-reaching more than anyone could have imagined. Those curious at this fact must be reminded that religion in ancient Rome served an essential purpose to all aspects of society – military, government, private life. Clodius’ action would have entirely undermined the purpose the Bona Dea rituals were trying to serve.

Publius Clodius Pulcher

There were speculations as to the reasons of Clodius’ attempt to enter the ceremony. The most famous speculation is that he was engaged in an affair with Caesar’s second wife, Pompeia. Others commented that the rashness of his youth might have spurred him on to act recklessly on his own accord. Nonetheless, Caesar left no room to chance or speculations. He divorced Pompeia famously saying “Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion”.  Yet, despite his humiliation (remember the offence was committed in his very home possibly with his very wife!), Caesar’s reaction was apparently mild. His relaxed attitude was out of the ordinary, and continued to interest and vex historians. Indeed, he went on to declare himself ignorant of the whole affair. How could a Pontifex Maximus allow his home to be tainted and a young reckless delinquent to have an affair with his wife with impunity? Caesar could have easily brought charges against Clodius for adultery and dealt him harsh punishment given his own high standing.       

Despite Caesar’s feigned ignorance, Clodius still found himself charged with sacrilege and brought to trial. The prosecution was headed by Cicero, who wished to increase his personal fame and influence through his rhetoric. He delivered a scathing and savage speech against Clodius in the Senate, and completely obliterated Clodius’ alibi:

“O extraordinary prodigy! O you monster! Are you not ashamed at the sight of this temple, and of this city, nor your life, nor the light of day? Do you, who were clad in woman’s attire, dare to assume a manly voice-you, whose infamous lust and adultery, united with impiety, was not delayed even by the time to stubborn witnesses to procure your acquittal?”

However, then came a twist of fate, one which completely took Cicero by surprise. The Senate cleared Clodius of all charges. The main reason for this surprised acquittal was that Clodius used monetary means to obtain his freedom funded by the one and only Marcus Licinius Crassus. In the end, his rhetoric was unable to withstand the people’s love for money. Nevertheless, his spiteful testimony was sufficient to create an irreparable rift between Clodius and himself, and to displace the former from government. Because of this, Clodius’ sense of pride was mortally wounded and he nursed an undying grievance against Cicero from that time since. Caesar, by feigning ignorance, has effectively offered Clodius mercy and a chance at redemption.  In return, Caesar secured Clodius’ loyalty, and a powerful ally against Cicero. In effect, he was in a position of leverage, a position which he has craftily played into his interests. Cicero was about to find himself in a real mess!

Come back to read more as navigate our way through the labyrinth of Roman politics, betrayal, faction-shifting, and gang wars that would see blood spilled on the streets of Rome.

                                                                                     To be continued in the next blog

  

Terentia: Cicero’s Devoted Wife and Money Bag!

Terentia

Life in politics is hard, but life in ROMAN politics is even harder, especially for a new man who wants this golden ticket to join the ‘Roman Elite Club’. For a man to run for senator, he must possess the total assets amounting to at least 400,000 sesterces. Could Cicero have possessed sufficient assets to satisfy this vexing threshold? Considering that it was imposed to keep away any potential upstart from politics and keep the senate house ‘pure’, ‘sacred’ and readily available to a few selfish patrician families,  it is certain that Cicero, with his equestrian background, would have no chance of entering the senate house on his own. What was he to do then? The answer is simple enough: marry. Marry a woman with sufficient assets to meet the threshold requirement of course! This is where Terentia came in. In this, Cicero would not be disappointed. Terentia’s total dowry was 400,000 sesterces, miraculously the exact amount for Cicero to just meet the threshold and run for senator.

Terentia was born into a wealthy plebian family by the name of Terentius, although the identity of her father is largely unknown. She may have been a daughter of a Varro, to whom Cicero may be related by blood. If this is the case, then this would no doubt have played a major part in influencing his marriage to Terentia. Upon her marriage to Cicero, Terentia received a huge dowry, which encompassed at least two blocks of tenement apartments in Rome, a plot of woods in the suburbs of Rome, and a large farm, which provided her family with considerable annual income. An extremely shrewd businesswoman, she owned many lands in her own name, including public lands and woodland property she acquired for investment.

Terentia married Cicero around 79 or 80 BC when she was 18. Cicero was then an up-and-coming new man with a promising career. The marriage was sine manu (literall ‘without hand’), which means Terentia would have remained under the legal control of her father, as opposed to a marriage cum manu (literall ‘with hand’), where a wife would be placed under the legal control of her husband and subject to his potestas (meaning ‘power’). Her dowry then passed to Cicero’s family, while her private property remained under her control. This private property was managed by Terentia with the aid of her guardian, Philotimus. She was indeed a woman of strong personality and a great ‘mistress’ of the house, who was responsible for managing the family affairs. She was also serious demonstrating proper piety by making regular offerings to the gods. In addition, she was devoted to Cicero’s friends and family just as Cicero was as evidenced when she and Cicero took part in assisting Cicero’s brother Quintus and his wife Pomponia (sister of Atticus) with their marriage. Terentia bore Cicero’s children, a daughter much loved by Cicero called Tullia born in 78 BC, and a son called Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor born in 65 BC.

58 BC is the lowest point of Cicero’s life, when he was exiled from Rome for executing Roman citizens who took part in the Catiline conspiracy without any trial. This exile was brought about through the enactment of a bill proposed by Cicero’s bitter enemy, Publius Clodius Pulcher, whom Terentia was allegedly nagging Cicero to prosecute for sacrilege.  Upon his exile, Terentia was left in charge of the affairs of Cicero, concerning his houses, villas, money, slaves, the upbringing of their children, and the welfare of the household. In this, Terentia found her role greatly changed as she no longer lived in Cicero’s shadow and was allowed to act on her own and on Cicero’s behalf in the public sphere.  Exile had indeed brought with it a dramatic shift in the gender role, with Terentia and Tullia now protesting the exile publicly, wearing their hair unkempt and putting on black mourning clothes. This effort on her part signifies her great devotion to Cicero’s cause, given that his exile would have legally ended their marriage.

Given Cicero’s precarious position at the time of his exile, Terentia would have been facing enormous hardships advocating for her husband’s return. Yet she pressed on! Even when their house on the Palatine Hill was burnt down by Clodius’ mob, she was not cowed and took refuge with the Vestal Virgins. Her relentless courage and fortitude were almost unparalleled, and this was commended by Cicero by numerous affectionate letters to his wife during his exile. In them, he expressed gratitude to Terentia for rallying his friends to his cause, and admitted that his return truly depended on her effort to push on no matter how the political climate was unfavourable. In the end, with the rallying of his friends and his wife, the most fervent activist, Cicero was able to return home at last in 57 BC.

However, in the remainder of 49 and much of 48 BC, Cicero became displeased with the way his wife was managing the financial affairs and he was especially critical of Philotimus' work. In one of his letters, he was indicating that Terentia was someone ‘he has trusted too much’. This estrangement surely stemmed from their time apart and the strained atmosphere of the civil war as Caesar was preparing his conquest of Italy. Their letters now became increasingly emotionless and reserved. The strain on their marriage finally led to divorce in 47 or 46 BC, when Terentia was around 52. According to Hieronymus Stridonensis, she later remarried two times, her second husband being the historian Sallust and her third the writer and general Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus, although this is not confirmed and cannot be historically proven. She outlived Cicero by several years to live to a ripe old age of 103 years dying in 6 AD.

In all, Cicero and Terentia’s marriage was a loving and mutually beneficial one (especially for Cicero!). Terentia’s economic independence, her business shrewdness, foresight and devotion to her husband would no doubt have placed her among the prominent women of ages past like Lucretia and Cloelia. Their relationship has been tried and tested to a breaking point. This is not uncommon for Roman couples where men engaged in treacherous politics. In the end, this is the risk that the Roman couples themselves must embrace.